Using examples, explain the relationship between transport innovation and reduced friction of distance.

“Every country will eventually lose its distinctive national identity as a result of global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Friction of distance is the barrier to the exchange of goods, services, ideas created by slow/limited/expensive transport. Over time, increased connectivity through transport has reduced friction of distance (changing our perception of time/space barriers).

Candidates may explore the relationship through the use of a timeline, and perhaps a diagram, showing how transport times have fallen as a result of successive transport “revolutions” (bicycle, boat, car train, ’plane, etc). Also credit accompanying technologies eg refrigeration for perishables and intermodal transport. Candidates may be familiar with the associated geographical concept of time–space convergence (in other words, we perceive that we inhabit a “shrinking world” as distant places “feel” nearer). Done well, this could be sufficient for the higher mark bands.

A different approach might be to look at more detailed case studies of particular technologies and their application (eg the speed with which flowers from Kenya are flown to Europe; or the speed with which containers can bring manufactured goods from EPZs in China to the USA). This approach is sufficient for band D even if the “relationship” is not particularly clear.

Finally, the subject guide specifies that candidates should have studied speed and capacity changes for two types of transport network. They might draw on this as part of their answer. However, they should be careful to focus on the reduced friction of
distance as the network is modernized, or extended into areas that were previously “switched off” (and thus took a longer time to reach).

Credit may be given for some discussion of the role that telecom networks play in transporting data and information, “eradicating” the friction of distance altogether.

Band C answers are likely to describe some specific details of transport history, but with little/no development of “friction of distance” (besides saying it has lessened).

At band D, expect either a clearer explanation of the changing relationship over time (may use the concept of time–space convergence) or effective use of detailed examples to explain how transport connects distant places together with reduced
travel time.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be national (or group) identity although credit can be given for groups within a nation eg Amish (USA), Welsh (UK), tribes (Amazon). Discussion of a diaspora’s “national” identity (eg the identity of the Chinese in USA) may also be credited. Expect candidates to take a range of approaches and to hold a range of views about what factors or processes make a place distinctive/less distinctive.

Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:

• a range of issues can be discussed pertaining to cultural dilution/cultural imperialism/immigration/multiculturalism [Guide 5]. Different cultural traits may be discussed eg language, diet, music, religion, etc
• evidence may be cited in support of the proposition that increasing cultural homogeneity is unavoidable/irreversible, for instance international migration or the spread of branded commodities [Guide 5] or the homogenization of urban/cultural landscapes [Guide 4]
• sovereign states risk losing political autonomy due to their membership of MGOs (especially the case for the EU) or in relation to wealth/leverage of TNCs [Guide 6], influence of IMF/World Bank [Guide 3]. 

Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:

• many countries have experienced a resurgence in nationalism/regionalism [Guide 6], for instance as evidenced by programmes of nationalization (Bolivia) or attempts to limit the dominance of English (in France’s case)
• there are instances of states or societies opting out of globalization/isolationism (eg, China’s stance on internet access; North Korea or until recently Myanmar; Amish communities in USA) [Guide 7]
• glocalized/hybrid outcomes can still be highly distinctive or unique [Guide 7]. 

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• national identity has many aspects, not all of which are threatened, eg, by MGO membership [Guide 6]
• other foci for identity may be becoming more important than national identity for many people, eg, diaspora identity.

At band C, some impacts on national/group identity/culture should be described and linked with global interactions such as migration, information flow etc. 

Band D should either provide a wider and more balanced discussion of the statement or offer a more critical discussion of what is meant by “distinctive national identity”.

At band E, expect both.

“Friction of distance” and transport innovation appears to be a well-understood and well-learned area of the curriculum. Even the weakest candidates were able to provide a short descriptive account of different modes of transport improving over time (in terms of the reduced time taken to move people or goods between locations). Many had learned the topic in advance in some depth, with accompanying locational details and data. This was not, however, always sufficient to reach the highest markband available. Some conceptual sophistication was also expected, such as clear, well-explained linkages with the concept of time–space convergence (or time–space compression). Alternatively, greater geographical knowledge was expected of how, in context, the friction of distance has lessened for specific global flows, such as commodity movements, thereby linking specific locales (such as the flower farms sited around Lake Naivasha, Kenya and the flower markets near Old Street, London, England). In contrast, band C answers often provided greater detail of, say, the technical specifications of jet engines, yet went on to merely assert that this allows “people” to “move around the world quicker”.

Many candidates performed a synthesis of the following topics: the influence of the McDonald’s corporation, national membership of trade blocs (especially the EU), the spread of English at the expense of native languages, the erosion of national traditions as a result of indigenous peoples’ contact with tourists, the dissemination of music and film through the internet, the growing homogenization of world cities, the prosperity of diaspora populations, and the resurgence of nationalism as a reaction to globalization (some candidates showed good contemporary knowledge of political movements in the EU). Arranged in a way that provided both support for, and rejection of, the statement, this was usually sufficient for band D. However, the sophistication with which these complex ideas were handled usually left a lot to be desired in work around the C/D boundary (see comments below on how performance could be improved in the future).

Using examples, analyse how economic and political factors affect global migration flows.

“The interdependence of countries has been greatly exaggerated.” Using examples, discuss this statement.

Economic push or pull factors may be discussed. Political factors might be conceptualized either as push and/or pull factors (such as persecution or conflict and liberal/tolerant governments) or alternatively as barriers to movement (eg, the EU allows migration between members while attempting to limit migration from northern Africa).

A good analysis may analyse global patterns instead of simply explaining a series of international case studies. Another approach may be to provide a structured analysis of flows being increased or decreased. Good answers might even analyse the timescale of movements, or the possibility of reversal (such as during the global financial crisis 2008–09, or in response to conflict).

Extremely well-detailed analyses of selected international movements (eg USA–Mexico) are unlikely to access band E (9-10 marks) without some broader global analysis.

For band C (4-6 marks), one weakly-evidenced economic and one weakly-evidenced political factor should be outlined, and a basic link established with migration flow(s) between some countries.

For band D (7-8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of

• either both types of factor, with more detailed national exemplification
• or how these factors affect the characteristics of migration flows at a global scale.

For band E (9-10 marks), expect both band D traits.

[10 marks]

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be on interdependence (the core idea underpinning the concept of globalization, ie that countries are mutually dependent on one another). The dependency could be economic or political in nature. Creditable social/cultural/environmental interpretations may also be discussed (perhaps linked with a concept of “global sustainability”). The phrasing of the question also requires that there should be some evaluation of whether exemplified countries have retained a degree of independence/autonomy in some, or all, ways. Possible themes from the geography guide include:

• economic interdependency due to outsourcing and FDI relationships [Guide 3]
• financial flows, remittances and migration (for instance, western Europe depends on the labour of eastern Europe which, in turn, relies on remittances as a proportion of GDP [Guide 3]
• multi-governmental organizations and the economic and political interdependency they foster [Guide 6]
• how diaspora populations can help foster bilateral relationships between country of origin and countries of destination [Guide 5].

Themes in agreement of ‘over-exaggeration’ include:

• the possibility of isolationism, protectionism and resource nationalism [Guide 6]
• retreat from interdependent relations as a result of nationalism and anti-globalization movements [Guide 6]
• local sourcing movements [Guide 7]
• shrinking world barriers eg ‘Great Firewall of China’ [Guide 2].

Good answers may question the context, because some countries with highly developed economies may have developed more complex financial networks and outsourcing arrangements; or may belong to more MGOs. Equally some countries are interdependent in some respects (financially) but perhaps not others (China’s relative cultural isolation). Good answers may also distinguish between dependency and connectivity, or may question whether the state of interdependency is unequal/asymmetric (one partner may be far more dependent on others than vice versa).

For band C (5-8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9-12 marks), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13-15 marks), expect both of these traits.

[15 marks]

Using examples, distinguish between cultural imperialism and cultural diffusion.

Examine the range of responses to the loss of national sovereignty that globalization can bring.

There is no universal agreement on the precise meaning of these terms, but expect a general distinction to be made between voluntary/consented changes (diffusion) and enforced/pressured changes (imperialism). In reality, there is a spectrum of pressure, and candidates may take different positions on this. All arguments should be judged on their individual merits.

Cultural imperialism denotes the projection of power – wherein a subaltern community or subordinate country experiences the “top-down”/forced imposition of cultural traits eg religion (missionaries), language, legal structures, dress codes, etc. Examples might include English language insistence in some Alaskan Inuit schools in recent times; or China in Tibet today; Indonesia and East Timor. Global domination of English – via the internet – is another contemporary theme, or American cultural hegemony (Hollywood, etc).

Cultural diffusion denotes a wider set of processes of cultural spread of which imperialism is just one avenue. Traits may be sought out and adopted voluntarily(eg Japanese teenagers adopting US music, film, etc). There are many avenues for diffusion, notably migration and music (via the internet). Adoption of Mexican diaspora cultural traits (especially food) by wider US society might be explored (or parallel examples elsewhere, eg UK, Sweden).

Political viewpoints may differ as to how the actions of TNCs should be categorized (the spread of consumerism may be seen either as a form of imperialism, or as diffusion) and different arguments should be judged on their own merits and in light of the evidence presented.

Good answers may touch on the growing projection of eg Indian and Chinese culture as exemplification, rather than being restricted entirely to historical European and USA superpower examples.

To access band C, both concepts/processes must be addressed and examples provided; and at band D, an attempt at distinguishing should be made, with specific examples of both provided (though the distinction may not be entirely convincing, because the concepts are sophisticated ones).

To access band E, the response should be well-balanced, well-articulated and well-exemplified.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Loss of sovereignty describes a state surrendering legislative power (eg can no longer act unilaterally when setting tariffs, migration controls etc). Loss of sovereignty could also be seen as a growing dependency on foreign-based TNCs, and foreign influences on national culture, etc. Some may argue the retreat of national identity, due to cultural diffusion [Guide 5] is progressive (“global citizen” ideas).

Reasons for loss of actual political sovereignty could include the growth of multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) or trade blocs, the actions of global organizations such as World Bank and IMF, the growth of international treaties and courts, as well as the excessive power of large global corporations [Guide 6]. Do not expect all of these themes to be covered, even in a good answer.

The economic logic behind MGOs may be appreciated and the benefits this can have for freer financial flows and migration flows, which may bring wealth to host and source regions [Guide 3]. Thus, some groups/companies/governments respond to globalization by embracing the benefits associated with MGO membership (weaker answers may simply cite the benefits, rather than explaining why some businesses show enthusiasm for MGO membership).

The negative response against globalization – such as resurgence of nationalism and opposition to migration in the EU – are likely themes [Guide 6] that can be extended through the analysis of the reaction of civil society and the organized rejection of this aspect of globalization, perhaps through political or religious pressure groups.

There is also the larger-scale idea of countries “opting out” of globalization (N Korea, Bhutan) [Guide 7]. These may determine what degree of sovereignty is ceded (not all European nations have joined EU, for instance).

Positive responses to globalization can thus be weighed against the fear of possible losses, costs and challenges. Any conclusion reached will be context-dependent. The arguments may be different for an account focused on the EU, in comparison to a discussion of NAFTA or MERCOSUR.

Band C answers describe a narrow range of responses that are linked to globalization or may explain why sovereignty is lost/threatened (but do not link this to the responses of particular actors). At the upper end of this level, there may be a simple, assertive conclusion based on a narrow synthesis of information.

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced themes taken from the subject guide or a conclusion that reflects on a range of responses (perhaps weighing the net balance of positive and negative responses, or taking into account the differing perspectives of different actors). At band E, expect both of these elements (both synthesis and some proper evaluation).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

This topic is clearly taught very differently by different centres. Some regard McDonaldization as a form of imperialism (in the neo-colonial mould), whereas others see it as a more pervasive form of cultural diffusion (on the basis that no-one is forced to eat a Big Mac at gunpoint). Either political view is fine, provided it can be justified and argued. Some good answers linked the diffusion/imperialism distinction with inequalities in power (that is, they contrasted an essentially one-way exchange, imperialism, with a two-way exchange of culture, diffusion). Another popular interpretation involved analysing cultural imperialism as the way culture is “rolled out” globally by powerful TNCs, whereas cultural diffusion was explained as being the “grass roots” embracing of traits belonging to migrant/diaspora groups by the wider population. Again, this was a fine approach to take if it could be argued coherently. In conclusion, there was no definitive “right” answer here; rather, there was an entire spectrum of “right” answers. “Wrong” answers, in contrast to these, typically tended to be self-contradictory (that is, the actions of TNCs were described as being both imperialism and diffusion, with no actual distinction made).

The subject guide (part 3, section 6) provides a teaching focus on geopolitical aspects of the loss of sovereignty (that is, the creation of MGOs) but also widens the geographical inquiry to encompass the power of TNCs. Thus, the cultural imperialism concept can be used in this wider context too, and many candidates made the connection. But it was a shame that some of those who chose this topic did not grasp the centrality of MGOs to the discussion at all, and knew little about the geopolitics of trade bloc membership and the mixed reaction of civil society. Some other weak responses did not answer the question directly and instead wrote only about how loss of sovereignty happens, not what the “range of responses” to this then are. Thus, they could write about English language spreading globally and threatening other tongues but did not, for instance, examine the response of either the French or Chinese government to this (setting quotas for the amount of foreign-language music, or films, respectively). In contrast, the best answers were properly synthetic and covered all of the key themes. Some showed very good current affairs knowledge of events in Greece and the Eurozone, or of “resource nationalism” (another reaction) in South America.

Explain how one multi-governmental organization has led to a loss of sovereignty.

Discuss the interrelationships between global interactions and changes in technology.

Candidates would be expected to define their chosen multi-governmental organization as a grouping of nations, providing as their example the EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, ASEAN or others.

The example chosen will influence the answer, as some MGOs are merely free trade areas while others have a common external tariff, in the case of the EU a common market and fuller economic union with shared currency and freedom of movement for workers. Thus an answer based around the EU will most likely assert that sovereignty has indeed been lost, while one based around NAFTA may address the phrase “loss of sovereignty” more reservedly.

Accept a wide interpretation of MGO to include the IMF, UN, G20, NATO etc. However, such answers may be self-limiting and unlikely to gain the higher bands as it may be hard to display a loss of sovereignty.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

One view is that technology drives global interactions. Historically, improved transport and communications networks have enabled the flows that allow global interactions to occur [Guide 2]. Expect details about cheap air flights driving global tourism [Guide 5], the internet driving the growth of virtual communities (Facebook), spatial diffusion into new markets (for example, mobile uptake in Africa and Asia). Various forms of technology are a key factor explaining the growth in power and influence of TNCs (with their ability to “knit” places together as part of a productive division of labour, outsourcing or through their attempts to build markets around the world) [Guide 3]. Also credit references to “technology transfer” by TNCs and application of the shrinking world concept/time–space compression [Guide 2].

Another reciprocal view exists, which is that globalization drives technology. It is global consumerism [Guide 5] which drives innovation, outsourcing and the technologies needed to make it all possible. Demand from people for faster internet (HD TV on demand etc.) leads to large TNCs re-investing profits into research and development hubs. Some answers might even touch on the role of international conflict in driving military technologies (roots of the internet lie here). Or the need for diasporas to maintain communication [Guide 5].

To attain band E, there must be some acknowledgment or suggestion of an “interrelationship” rather than just “relationship”, and the reciprocal relation should be mentioned or strongly implied.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Accept a wide interpretation of “technology” (for example, global diffusion of medicare, farming techniques etc.)

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Some good answers chose the EU to exemplify loss of sovereignty in many policy areas, including currency, human rights, immigration and other important aspects of governance. Pleasingly, details of the recent Eurozone crisis appeared in some scripts, with impressive analysis of the outcome for Greece that tackled head on the issue of loss of sovereignty.

Another successful approach was to choose the IMF as the chosen example and provide details of how the acceptance of structural adjustment programmes has represented a partial loss of sovereignty for nations like Tanzania for whom the receipt of much-needed loans has been conditional upon privatization of infrastructure and services (and all under the tutelage of EU-based consultancy firms).

Several examples were seen of very poorly prepared candidates writing about TNCs rather than MGOs; why they did not simply choose a different question is unclear.

Some excellent, wide-ranging answers thoughtfully examined how technology had led to, or accelerated, a range of global interactions. Candidates who understood the nature of the paper 3 assessment were able to plan a wide-ranging response that considered, in turn, political, economic, social and cultural interactions (showing in each case how ICT or containers and cheap flights assisted with global-scale processes and interactions). In contrast, some weaker responses merely listed (often for several pages) a timeline, or catalogue, of technologies before asserting that these all contributed to, or constituted, a shrinking world. While this showed good general knowledge of technology and gadgets, it was hardly the best way to tackle a synthetic geography assignment and tended to be a self-limiting approach.

Very, very few grasped the "interrelationship" suggested by the question. This ideally required some acknowledgment that technologies do not come "from nowhere" but are rather the outcome of powerful global actors actively seeking time–space compression in an attempt to increase product sales, turnover times, break into new markets and undertake corporate mergers. The role played by the research and development units of TNC headquarters (part of the international division of labour) was not appreciated. Thus the reciprocal profit motive that drives the technical creativity of TNCs such as Apple, Microsoft and Google was almost entirely neglected.

Analyse the causes and environmental consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries.

“Barriers to globalization are no longer falling but are rising instead.” Discuss this statement.

AO1/2 indicative content:

• The international relocation of polluting industries refers primarily to the global shift of manufacturing from the developed to the developing world; also credit the increased uptake of outsourcing contracts by manufacturers in lower-wage economies.
• The main cause is avoidance of high labour and land costs, and “red tape” in developed countries; but the movement may also be market-driven if new industries are being established in proximity to emerging markets. Another theme might be international movements of recycling industries (and linked flows of e-waste).
• The consequences for people and places vary according to context. They may include impacts on the atmosphere/hydrosphere/biosphere, and short- or long-term health costs for societies.

Good answers may make use of detailed exemplification and/or specialist terminology. Or they may analyse the varied types of cause and environmental consequence, perhaps for different categories of polluting industry, in a well-structured (AO4) way. Another approach might be to analyse some of the temporal (long-term) and spatial (pattern) dimensions of the consequences.

Band D credit may be given for the use of any case studies which illustrate changing global patterns of economic activity – including inward investment, outsourcing, and refuse flows – provided that the causes are relevant and the consequences are environmental (rather than social).

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a narrow range of causes and/or environmental consequences of changing global patterns of economic activity.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced and balanced analysis which includes:

• either varied and detailed causes of changing global patterns of economic activity
• or detailed environmental consequences of international industrial relocation.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Globalization is defined in the subject guide. Real barriers include border controls and walls (political barriers) and virtual firewalls (technological barriers). There are also the real or perceived cultural barriers of language and religion. The concept of a “barrier” is broad and may be interpreted in many ways and from different perspectives.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content:

• falling barriers for data: the shrinking world and time–space convergence [Guide 2]
• falling barriers due to cultural exchange, diaspora growth [Guide 5]
• falling barriers due to the global diffusion of branded commodities [Guide 5]
• increasing barriers for international migration (barriers and/or policies) [Guide 3, 5]
• increasing barriers as governments react to the real or perceived loss of sovereignty through retreat from multigovernmental organizations or increased protectionism [Guide 6, 3]
• isolated societies for whom barriers neither rise nor fall [Guide 7].

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might offer a structured discussion of different categories of barrier
• might systematically discuss both sides of the argument before arriving at a judgement that progresses beyond simply concluding the statement is both true and false (one approach could be to argue that the statement is more true for some types of global interaction than it is for others)
• might address the truth of the statement on different timescales (eg taking a long view rather than focusing on more recent events only).

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide focused on whether or not there are barriers to globalization.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Explain how global interactions can foster environmental awareness.

“International interactions always result in the homogenization of culture.” Discuss this statement.

There are many possible approaches. Responses may focus on examples of improved awareness in a single country or may consider the global realm of environmental management. Examples of the latter include response to transboundary pollution, such as oil spills or acid rain, and global climate change governance. They may also possess knowledge of global ecological/conservation initiatives such as Ramsar, WWF, and UNESCO.

The work of NGOs such as Greenpeace may also be explored. Candidates may examine the environmental messages that are sent as well as explaining the medium through which they are transmitted/type of global interaction (for example, internet, Facebook etc.).

Another approach is to argue that global interactions are often environmentally damaging and that we cannot help but be aware of them (for example, Gulf of Mexico oil spill or climate change).

Another response might look at how international movements of waste have improved environmental management for source countries who have simply paid to dispose of their problems elsewhere (for example, waste sent to China for recycling) and it may be noted that awareness of this trend is growing.

To access bands D and E, the response should do more than list green initiatives; it should also tie them to the concept of global interactions. Good answers may also ask whose awareness has been raised – civil society, corporations, governments etc.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The nature of international interactions should be made explicit. Pathways for cultural exchanges include the movement of workers, tourists, commodity flows, and military and imperial ventures, all of which can be accelerated by membership of multi-governmental organizations, such as the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN etc. [Guide 6].

It is not true that homogenization is an inevitable outcome. Possible obstacles include nationalism and anti-globalization movements, as well as a range of local responses that challenge cultural imperialism or at least negotiate “glocalized” outcomes [Guide 7].

There is plenty of scope to discuss arts, music, cuisine and other fields of cultural expression, and to investigate hybridized outcomes – or to look at the obduracy of cultural traits among diaspora groups, meaning that cultural diversity is not lost in global hubs such as New York or Toronto [Guide 5].

In support of the statement, expect TNCs to feature, with some mention of “McDonaldization” or a similar argument using Starbucks, Disney etc. as examples, or broad observations about the spread of English and Spanish perhaps employing the concept of cultural imperialism. The strongest answers may critique the notion of glocalization, and question whether the innovation of a “curry burger” for the Indian McDonald’s franchise is truly symptomatic of heterogeneity [Guide 3 and 5].

The role of technology and the internet in fostering homogeneity through the relation of the shrinking world/global village may also be a feature [Guide 2].

To access bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

One striking general weakness observed here was that many responses were insufficiently focused on how global interactions can foster environmental awareness. Answers could often explain "why" (for instance, it was widely argued that global awareness of climate change is inadvertently fostered by the careless polluting actions of TNCs that have come to the public's attention) but could not address "how" (that is, the processes or pathways that link global interactions to environmental awareness).

Good answers sometimes looked at use of global media (old and new) by NGOs; global diffusion of films such as "An Inconvenient Truth" (and the follow-up globetrotting of Al Gore, celebrities and academics, in order to help raise awareness of important issues); or the idea of representatives of nations "interacting" at key global environmental meetings and conferences such as Stockholm, Kyoto, Copenhagen etc. "Environmental awareness" was equated to "hazard awareness" by a few; there is some legitimate topic overlap, but they are really not equivalents and such responses tended to be self-limiting. Overall, there were some very strong answers to this question, the most popular of the three on the paper.

There were some strong answers to this question that used a commendable range of appropriate examples. In many cases, the net was thrown wide, allowing plenty of credit for assessment objective 3 to be awarded as candidates synthesized a mixture of ideas dealing with TNCs, diaspora groups, nationalism, global media and more.

Weaker answers showed little understanding of what "culture" does, or does not, include (and had little idea of cultural traits, for instance). They also tended to see changes of culture in a very simplistic way. For example, many argued that TNCs or other global interactions "destroy" local culture. Most interpreted any change at all as being towards homogenization, even when the influence of incoming cultural forces was limited and a more logical and appropriate conclusion might have been that local culture had undergone "diversification" (pleasingly, some employed terminology such as hybridity or glocalization here). Very few could tackle the more complex yet very useful idea (in this context) of culture as a "performance", for instance, in the context of querying the nature of the "loss" when a local tribe retains its traditional clothing or dances/rituals for the tourist gaze but may simultaneously (and more or less invisibly) be adopting a modern/secular/consumerist worldview. This is a complex idea requiring thoughtful evaluation that sadly eluded the majority (but is in fact very important if ideas of cultural change and exchange are to be properly explored). A sensible conclusion reached by some of the best candidates was that true global diversity (in terms of different languages) has fallen (though offset to some degree by proliferation of new hybrid glocalisms). Whereas at a local level, some global hubs/core regions/megacities have witnessed an increase in cultural diversity due to the global interaction of migration. Toronto and London are extremely diverse world cities (however, the "melting pot" hypothesis suggests this hyper-diversity may be transient – over time, differences may lessen at this scale also, as different cultures intermingle).

Using examples, explain the factors responsible for the global spread of consumer culture.

“National governments cannot control global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Consumer culture may be described and exemplified as the spread of purchasing habits (branded clothes, fast food, music), or analysed in greater depth as the spread of a capitalist worldview wherein everyday life is commoditized and branded. Multiple traits of consumer culture might be identified, including:

• changing tastes in food (linked with retail and restaurant TNCs)
• fashion (linked with global media corporations)
• music purchasing (linked with online platforms such as iTunes and YouTube).

The key factors that can be explained include:

• the expansion of TNCs in a drive for new markets (may involve glocalization)
• the growth of global media and ICT (operating either as an independent factor or as a byproduct of innovation by TNCs such as Microsoft and Apple)
• the concept of cultural imperialism (linked either to the activities of TNCs or superpower states with “soft power” such as the USA).

Good answers may note that the factors are interrelated and reinforce one another (TNCs drive innovation, for instance). Another approach might examine how different factors might be linked with different aspects/traits of consumer culture (the spread of designer clothes can be related to container shipping and TNCs; the purchasing of online games and music can be related to ICT).

For band C, expect two factors to be described and linked with the spread of culture and/or commodities.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of a range of factors linked with the spread of culture/commodities or greater explanation of what is meant by “the spread of consumer culture”.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Management by national government may comprise migration controls, rules for FDI, terms attached to loans and aid, the issues of internet control and censorship. Successes and failure to control may be highlighted either between different countries, or different kinds of global interaction (trade/migration/information flows), or both.

Possible themes include:

• MGOs such as the EU and NAFTA as evidence the statement is correct and countries must now group together in order to try to manage global interactions in ways that reestablish some control [Guide 6]
• cultural globalization as an unstoppable force (or not) and national attempts to control flows of media and information [Guide 5]
• the power of global financial institutions eg IMF and its insistence that national governments institute reforms eg SAPs [Guide 3]
• migration issues and controls [Guide 3, 6, 7]
• government promotion of localism [Guide 7]
• transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• government attitudes towards foreign direct investment and financial flows [Guide 2]
• military conflicts eg ISIS in the Middle East [current affairs].

Good answers may be structured around different kinds of global interactions (eg contrasts management of economic interactions and cultural globalization in the course of the essay). Another approach might be to discuss the effectiveness of the actions of different types of government (democracies and autocracies).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how national governments control/cannot control different kinds of global interaction. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced
conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

The best answers explained what was meant by consumer culture, as opposed to “culture” in general. Candidates were often well-versed in geographical terminology and could write with confidence about cultural diffusion and imperialism. In contrast, some candidates produced a “common sense” response that a candidate of any subject might have written. These answers focused on the power of advertising and branding, often at great length. Sometimes, this was sufficient for band C or even D.

This popular question allowed a wide range of themes to be synthesized. The change in the power of national governments was often thoroughly interrogated by the strongest candidates. At the upper end, there was frank acknowledgment that opting out of economic globalization is not a realistic strategy for any leading industrialized nation, but that degrees of control over migration and information flows are still achievable.

Analyse the spatial and temporal pattern of adoption of one or more branded commodities.

“Global interactions have helped reduce disparities between places.” Discuss this statement.

There are spatial and temporal dimensions to the topic and both should be addressed. Only one example is required. If two examples are used then credit breadth rather than depth of analysis.

For band C, expect a description of the pattern of growth that contains some reference to a timescale and identifies countries or regions where the commodity/commodities have been adopted.

For bands D and E, expect a more thorough analysis that has good details or may additionally acknowledge the glocalized nature of the growth pattern or can identify growth boundaries (rather than implying the entire world has adopted the commodity), for example, may view poverty in parts of the world periphery as an obstacle to complete global diffusion. The case studies of diffusion may highlight key “blind spots” or anomalies where local resistance exists for cultural, political or economic reasons. For instance, there may be religious obstacles to the diffusion of McDonald’s beefburgers. Good answers may be aware of tariffs and trade bloc arrangements making it difficult for TNCs to gain entry to certain key markets.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The term “global interactions” should be explained; many approaches are possible. Some responses may do this by reference to one of the indices of interactions [Guide 1]. This could then provide a structure for their response. Alternatively, responses may focus on different types of interactions, such as trade, aid, flows of labour, currency etc. and structure their response by looking at different examples [Guide 3].

It is valid to examine disparities at any scale, including the local scale, provided they are linked to global interactions.

The strongest responses will make explicit links between the changes they describe (for example, poverty reduction in China) and specific global interactions (for example, China building wealth through global trade).

Some may argue that as global interactions have increased, core areas have expanded to include more people [Guide 1]. Expect most accounts to tackle the idea of a developing periphery, for example, NICs/BRICs/EAGLEs.

A broad interpretation of “disparities” should be credited, for example, gender or environmental degradation [Guide 4]. Expect some mention of “unfair” losses for people whose environment is damaged by global trade and transboundary pollution [Guide 4]. Also, local cultures may be eroded [Guide 5], while the political emasculation of small states by powerful TNCs might even be discussed in a creditable way [Guide 6].

To access bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected if the candidate has a strong evidenced argument that mostly agrees or disagrees with the statement. Greater attention to scale (tackling disparities both between and within nations) is also indicative of high markband attainment.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

It is clear that many centres are teaching detailed case studies of Coca-Cola and McDonald's as branded commodities (very few responses mentioned other branded commodities). It was common for the temporal pattern of adoption to be treated in more detail than the spatial pattern of adoption, despite the guide's wording (that gives equal weighting to both). Weaker answers failed to reference any named places, cities, countries or regions, or could argue for little beyond a basic diffusion "from MEDCs to LEDCs". Most responses looked only (and partially) at where the commodity was adopted. Fewer considered the delimitation of the pattern, that  is, could recognize the "black spots" where it was not yet adopted, either because it was not offered or was rejected (this strand of argument was actively looked for at band E, given the overarching rationale of this part of the course – as set out in the very first paragraph of part 3 of the guide - which encourages teachers and candidates to consider patterns of resistance, as well as adoption, in relation to global interactions).

"Disparities" is a wide umbrella term. The use of it here aimed to open the question up, thereby allowing a synthetic response ideally to be developed. The best answers appreciated this, and could demonstrate that not all disparities are income-based (the commonest interpretation). Stronger responses also included reference to disparities relating to race, gender, ethnicity and social status. Mid-level responses tended to be limited to a consideration of just two kinds of interaction, typically remittances and investment by TNCs. A third theme was usually introduced in better answers, such as trade interactions taking place within trade blocs. (More than two themes is very much to be to be encouraged if bands D and E are to be attained in a part (b) essay, following the "synthesis" criteria of assessment objective 3.)

Using located examples, analyse the importance of outsourcing for transnational corporations (TNCs).

“International migration is the main reason for the loss of distinctive local cultures.” Discuss this statement.

Outsourcing is when a company hands internal functions to an outside company (a client relationship), for example US/EU clothing companies outsource to Bangladesh; ICT outsourcing to Bangalore/Philippines; BP outsourcing of Gulf of Mexico oil rig operation to Halliburton; McDonald’s outsourcing the management of its restaurants to local companies in some states.

Outsourcing overlaps with foreign direct investment to a large extent if the TNC invests or has an ownership stake in the company it outsources to. There is considerable overlap between outsourcing and other forms of FDI (“offshore” branch plant construction) in terms of the important factors that drive these practices:

• cheap labour (and other low costs eg health and safety)
• low taxes (including use of Export Processing Zones/SEZs)
• local supplier’s ability to source cheap parts/materials or greater familiarity with market (glocalization).

These generic factors should be credited, even if the candidate’s link to proper outsourcing (as opposed to other forms of FDI) is insecure.

Good answers may show awareness that some companies may prefer to keep their operations in-house or may only outsource non-essential operations, or are beginning to “re-shore” operations to reduce supply chain risks (Japanese tsunami, disturbances in Ukraine, Nigeria, Kenya, etc). Another approach might be to analyse how some types/sectors of TNCs (mining operations, agribusinesses) may be less reliant on outsourcing than manufacturers and retailers with large and complex supply chains. Another approach might be to analyse how some TNCs, such as Amazon and Starbucks, have been criticized by the governments of sovereign states for the claim that they have “outsourced” operations to different subsidiaries of their own company (in an attempt to avoid corporation tax).

For band C, expect some description of the reasons why it is important for TNCs to have different operations/activities carried out in different places.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of why different operations/activities are carried out in different places or a good attempt to analyse why outsourcing is important for different TNCs.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus might be how a range of reasons/factors, including migration, helps explain the loss (or not) of distinctive local cultures. Likely reasons include internet/media, tourism, rising wages in emerging economies and elsewhere/changing employment structures. Credit physical reasons too, such as suggested climate change refugees (Tuvalu, Maldives).

Alternatively, candidates might discuss the extent to which migration brings loss/harm or benefits to the world’s many local cultures in both source and host regions for migration. Rather than addressing other factors, the discussion can encompass a range of ways in which migration and diaspora growth impacts on local cultures, including their preservation (the cultural “fossilization” of diaspora source nations, for instance).

Possible themes relating to migration and/or local culture include:

• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• homogenous urban landscapes [Guide 4]
• tourism and the tourist gaze [Guide 5]
• cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• global media and TNCs as agents of change [Guide 5 and 7]
• nationalist movements [Guide 6]
• isolationism [Guide 7].

Good answers may discuss what is meant by “loss”: culture comprises many traits, some of which may persist while others are lost or change. Another approach might be to discuss the emergence of new hybrid or “melting point” cultures eg in World Cities: these may replace previously homogenous cultures but they can be just as distinctive as the more homogenous
cultures that were found there before.

For band D, expect a structured discussion, the central elements of which are migration, local cultures and possibly some additional reasons/factors. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Outsourcing is a term that still causes confusion and was poorly understood by a surprising number of candidates. Typically, they used vague language, such as: “outsourcing is when a country uses the work force in another country”. Outsourcing is defined by the geography guide as “The concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them. Outsourcing is done to save money, improve quality or free company resources for other activities.” Within the context of a geography examination paper (as opposed to business management), it may safely be assumed that a company which outsources its operations overseas becomes, by default, what we would term a TNC. The geography guide defines a TNC as “a firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one country through foreign direct investment”. Significant global outsourcing relationships create a partnership (or global interaction) wherein both companies play a role in productive control. The client company may pay for training, or invest in the transfer of technology to the supplier company. The exam question also asked candidates to address the “importance” of the relationship for the Client Company, or TNC. Profitability was a key theme to explore here, linked with various low-cost factors of production. Well-developed examples were frequently supplied, usually Bangalore (call centres) or China (manufacturing). A few mentioned Bangladesh. Some of the best answers analysed the declining of outsourcing as a result of recent “reshoring” by risk-averse companies. Weaker candidates sometimes drifted off course and provided a lengthy cost-benefit analysis of outsourcing for India, rather than writing about the importance of outsourcing for companies.

The best answers were carefully structured around a range of possible factors, not just international migration, and used strong supporting evidence. Some of the strongest candidates offered a final substantiated judgment of whether migration is, or is not, the dominant factor. A minority of candidates misunderstood where the emphasis of the essay statement lies. They discussed whether migration was responsible for a loss, or gain, of culture. This approach was often hard to carry through and many floundered when it came to arguing coherently whether the presence of a diaspora community in a world city represents a loss, or gain, of “distinctive local cultures”.

Explain why the landscapes of major world cities are becoming increasingly similar.

“Global interactions are putting all the world’s wealth into the hands of a small number of people and countries.” Discuss this statement.

The focus should be an explanation of the landscapes of major world cities eg Sao Paulo, New York, Cape Town, Singapore, Mumbai, Barcelona, Dublin etc. These settlements may house “cloned” retailing districts and ubiquitous branded commodities (expect references to McDonald’s and Starbucks); also, a suggestion of “universal” modernist architecture in financial and housing districts (expect a range of examples in stronger responses); also, a broader response may encompass the proliferation of cultural and religious signs and symbols as a result of migration and diaspora (eg mosques, synagogues, churches all present in major world cities/global hubs). Metro-style transport networks are a common shared feature.

Explanation may include: the global influence of property developers (retail/financial/housing) key architects and their firms; inter-urban competition (eg status competition for the highest, or most modern-looking buildings); the power of TNCs to project global advertising messages in urban environments (and perhaps regulatory changes or trade bloc enlargements assisting their global expansion); rising affluence in emerging economies (thus enticing McDonald’s, etc); the “shrinking world” effect (the global diffusion of architectural styles, etc); migration leading to landscape changes; historical connections (colonial architecture).

The question does not require counter-argument although some may note that “similar” is not equivalent to “same” due to the survival of local architecture. The focus invites an overview of the world’s major cities/urban landscapes and the best answers may cite examples drawn from both developed world cities and those of some emerging economies eg “Asian Tigers”, Middle East, BRIC nations.

Band C answers are likely to be descriptive (lacking explanation) of urban homogenization, or explain cultural/global homogenization but without a landscape/city focus.

For band D, at least two reasons for urban/landscape homogenization should be well explained, or a wider range of reasons for cultural homogenization are explained in less detail and some links are made with urban landscapes. Band E should provide breadth and depth of explanation, with some variety of landscape exemplification.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The broadest macro-scale distributional contrasts should be clearly highlighted – including the high growth rates of emerging economies, especially those of China and India (can be used to support or argue against the question) and the continued lack of FDI for the poorest 50 LDCs. A historical view might contrast the historical Brandt Line north-south wealth distribution with today’s more complex pattern of cores [Guide 1]. Good answers may even appreciate the recent relative underperformance and loss of share of wealth of established core regions (Japan, USA, Eurozone). Answers should be focused on wealth, rather than “importance” and may have supporting data, eg GDP figures or income data or use of Gini index data. These changes may be linked with a range of explanatory reasons relating to economic interactions including FDI, remittances, aid etc. [Guide 3], changes in global participation [Guide 1] or geopolitical change and interaction [Guide 6].

The benefits of globalization are not evenly spread within nations and this is a reason for resistance from some groups [Guide 5/7]. One approach might be to examine the claim that “the rich get richer while the poor get poorer” and describe evidence for worker poverty within some nations, linked to FDI/TNCs [Guide 3], outsourcing or agro-industry employment [Guide 4]. Societies that have been excluded from global interactions (indigenous tribes, etc) may also be discussed [Guide 7].

Good answers may address the question at different scales, or may suggest a complex global pattern of “haves” and “have-nots” (perhaps by identifying wealth in the Middle East or East Asia, or highlighting the persisting poverty of the poorest LDCs eg Mali). The best answers may distinguish between relative and absolute levels of wealth. As the rich have got richer, the poor may hold a lessened share of wealth – this is not the same thing as losing wealth.

Band C responses may assert the statement is correct/incorrect, based on a narrow range of supporting ideas, lacking much specific evidence/information.

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion that provides a considered/balanced viewpoint/overview, clearly related to the changing distribution of global wealth. At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

There were some very descriptive answers seen, as commented on above. A commonly-made assertion was that TNCs “arrive” and transform the landscape. But why are TNCs arriving in Jakarta, Phnom Penh, Mumbai, Mombasa, Sao Paulo, and so on? Too many geography candidates are unable to meaningfully articulate why the world around us is changing. In strong answers, there was some recognition of the wealth growth amongst the new middle classes in global hubs such as Sao Paulo, attracting the interest of global capital. Good responses sometimes looked at the role of “re-branding” (modernizing the city, using cutting-edge architectural design) in order to attract further FDI (multiplier ideas). Some middle-ability candidates, however, lost focus on “major” world cities and wrote instead about small settlements (for example, “clone towns” in the UK, for which some credit could be gained provided the explanation was good and pertinent to the actual question set). Significant numbers wrote an inappropriate answer concerned with the Burgess concentric ring model, and asserted that this was a “universal” landscape (hence, they argued erroneously that all landscapes, from Tokyo to Illinois, must become the same in time, in strict line with Burgess’s wishes).

The general level of understanding in middle-ability responses to this question is also a cause for concern. Very few candidates seemed to show appropriate understanding of 21st century global economic geography. Not one single candidate, for instance, was seemingly aware that the McDonald’s franchises in India are 50% native-owned. Instead, the entire cohort asserted that “all the profits go to the USA”. Several more widely-used case studies suffered similarly from out-of-date, or just plain incorrect, content. Candidates had little or no knowledge of TNCs based in the BRIC or “Tiger” economies, such as Tata, Shanghai Electric or Samsung. Very few possessed up-to-date information about the world’s emerging middle class, such as the 40 million-strong C class in Brazil, who have enjoyed significant gains in consumption since the 1990s (though not in citizenship, which has been the focus of the recent riots in Brazil). It is, of course, entirely appropriate for candidates to be concerned with continuing poverty in parts of Africa, and the role that TNCs may play in perpetuating this. It is also true that a minority of billionaires monopolize a huge chunk of the world’s wealth, however, higher level diploma geography candidates should surely recognize that there is more to the changing global pattern of wealth than this. One good starting point for updating content is this recent McKinsey report: http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class

Analyse the relationship between globalization and the resurgence of nationalism in one country you have studied.

“Global interactions have made the world a richer place but not a fairer place.” Discuss this statement.

The resurgence of nationalist tendencies within states can link with international migration (notably the EU, also southern states of USA), a politicized loss of jobs to outsourcing (for example, USA to China) and broader concerns with cultural dilution (for example, the Facebook ban in Pakistan; state internet censorship to some degree can be found in 40 countries).

For bands D and E, the focus should clearly be on global rather than local interactions that do not reflect the dynamics of the world economy and/or its media (thus the labour migration of workers from Mexico to a global hub such as the USA is highly relevant; refugees seeking refuge from drought in a neighbouring country is not).

Nationalism itself assumes many forms – from overt racism/xenophobia to less sensational controls, for example, migration caps. Alternative interpretations of nationalism could include state-sanctioned hostile reaction to TNCs (for example, Chavez seizing assets of TNCs, or another “resource nationalism” case study) or clampdowns on media access sanctioned on national security grounds.

An account that lacks details of the manifestation of the growth of nationalism can still access the higher bands if the multiple “threats” brought by global interactions are well analysed. Discussion of only one country is required. In-depth analysis of a single reaction could reach full marks if the answer is developed, shows relevant understanding and uses terminology well.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Richer:

Global participation has increased over time and core areas [Guide 3] have clearly expanded since the days of the Brandt Report. Developing peripheries [Guide 3] are places where a large emerging middle class can be found apparent, for example, NICs/BRICs. This economic fact does not need to be contested/debated. However, it could be by suggesting the 2008 credit crunch caused the expansion of world wealth to temporarily halt/reverse. It is also possible to critique other notions of “wealth”, such as cultural [Guide 5] or ecological wealth [Guide 4], although, again, this is not a requirement.

Fairer:

This point does need to be debated, as it is controversial. Hundreds of millions have been lifted out of poverty in China although India is still a very divided society. It can be argued that global financial flows [Guide 3] have redistributed money on a regional level as world GDP has risen, with Asia, Brazil and some African (“African lion”) states clearly prospering at the aggregate level of GDP. But the benefits are still very uneven. Numbers in poverty in Saharan Africa have doubled over 30 years. Some financial flows (TNC profits, mining revenues etc.) are re-directed at core regions [Guide 3]. Good answers may debate the difficulties in finding a universally accessible definition of “fair” (or “wealth” for that matter).

There are also “unfair” losses for the environment [Guide 4] in many places (an account of transboundary pollution could be employed here) and for local cultures as languages are lost etc. [Guide 5]. There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits.

To access band D, the answers should be well balanced. For band E, there should be an evidenced conclusion that has critically interrogated the idea of “fairness” with respect to the changing distribution of the growing total amount of global wealth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Some very strong answers examined the phenomenon of nationalization as an expression of "resource nationalism" (wherein the state re-asserts control of strategic resource operations, such as oil refineries owned by TNCs, as witnessed in recent years in Bolivia and Venezuela). Other candidates provided a thorough account of the xenophobic reaction to multiculturalism in EU nations (seen as a proxy for, or subset of, globalization). Contrastingly, weaker answers showed little understanding of what "nationalism" means, or made simple assertions that racism is now a problem in the UK, for example.

Less confident candidates sometimes chose to simply agree that the world is indeed an unfair place and did not, or could not, offer a counter-argument, whereas the strongest candidates knew plenty about the pros and cons of the actions and impacts of the IMF, the World Bank and SAPs (from strand 3 of the guide) and could therefore mount a proper assessment of how the opening up to global interactions of China and India (among others) had impacted on aggregate levels of wealth as well as on distributions (at varying geographical scales). The best answers provided strong evidence to support their arguments and could offer a wide interpretation of "fair" that allowed them to build a wider synthesis of ideas.

Analyse the increasing influence of one multi-governmental organization you have studied.

“Global interactions bring negative effects, rather than positive effects, to every part of the world.” Discuss this statement.

Likely examples include the EU, NAFTA or the BRICS group (which has had annual meetings since 2009). Also credit other examples of global governance with a multi-governmental character, such as the IMF, World Bank, G8, OPEC, NATO, OECD. Also credit the UN, or UN-sponsored agencies. An analysis of the influence of a specific global conference or agreement/protocol (climate change meetings in Kyoto, Doha, etc) could reach band D/E provided that it is explicitly shown to be the product of multi-governmental collaboration, organization or debate (if not, limit such responses to band C).

Multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) influence the way citizens, civil society and businesses operate by relaxing barriers to certain types of global flow/movement (migrants, tourists, goods, capital, etc). A key issue is the diminishing effectiveness of political borders.

Alternative approaches might analyse the political influence that MGOs have over the governance of sovereign states:

• EU states must agree to adopt legislation from European Parliament (some may even know of the growing influence of Germany as a driver of EU policy affecting Greece during Eurozone crisis)
• IMF insistence on economic reform/adjustments in countries seeking loans, sometimes critiqued as a neo-colonial form of influence
• UN human rights rulings/war tribunals/peace-keeping operations
• NATO or other military alliances and their actions
• the macro-economic influence of OPEC during the 1970s (another approach might be to analyse why OPEC’s influence has ceased to increase since)
• the growing influence of the BRICS group (especially Chinese and Indian investment in African countries).

At band D, expect either description of some range of ways in which an MGO is influential, or some chronology/explanation of why its influence is increasing.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Three likely ways to discuss the statement (there may be others) are as follows:

• one way is to assess the net effect for a range of generic global concerns (“every part of the world” is thus interpreted as “the world”)
• another way is to agree that there are few positives associated with global interactions, notably environmental effects, and to then address the extent to which particular places, especially isolated/wilderness regions [Guide 7], have suffered
• alternatively, candidates may offer a place-by-place or regional audit eg compares/discusses South America, Africa, USA, etc.

Likely themes for discussion include:

• financial flows [Guide 3] and workplace exploitation, balanced against the alleviation of poverty
• cultural interactions can bring homogeneity but also bring new forms of culture, and hybridity [Guide 5] but this must be balanced against the loss of authentic differences and the ways in which adopted cultural traits enable “exploitative” or consumerist TNCs to gain leverage to penetrate new markets, etc
• migration brings a range of effects for host and source regions [Guide 5]; these should be carefully weighed and, ideally, a genuine evaluation given (rather than listed costs and benefits)
• environmental harm is likely to be a major theme [Guide 4]; some may argue that accelerated climate change stems from accelerated global interactions (accept this view), opening the way for a thoughtful discussion of predicted changes (including some beneficial ones, eg thermal growing season).

Good answers may provide some discussion of the extent of these effects (the interrogation of whether “every place” is affected) and may focus on “un-globalized” societies eg Amazonian tribes [Guide 7], ocean pathways for pollution and plastic-strewn coral atolls, Antarctic beaches, etc.

At band D, there should be either a detailed explanation of a variety of effects or a more critical discussion of the net balance/spread of effects.

For band E, expect both.

Some excellent answers were seen that addressed “influence” in multiple ways. Trade, geopolitics and migration were common themes that candidates using the EU or NAFTA explored. These were far and away the most popular examples, although a small minority wrote about Mercosur. Middle-ability candidates were sometimes shaky on important details, such as the number of EU member states.

Well-informed and well-revised candidates were likely to attain band D, as this was achievable by synthesizing a series of “positive” and “negative” case studies of almost any variety and concluding that global interactions have brought “mixed” results. Far fewer candidates displayed the ability to produce a nuanced evaluation of the statement that was more sensitive to the concepts of geographical place and scale. Where band E marks were awarded, candidates had generally progressed beyond a mere “costs and benefits” approach and were able to focus on the veracity of the statement that every part of the world is adversely affected by global interactions. They debated explicitly whether effects such as the spread of English language, or diffusion of plastic pollution in the oceans, are truly globalized phenomena or not.

Using examples, distinguish between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement.

“Due to global interactions, there is no longer a global periphery.” Discuss this statement.

Transboundary pollution (TBP) is pollution that crosses a national border accidently or inadvertently due to physical processes (atmosphere, currents, etc). Recent examples of transboundary pollution (TBP) include forest fires in Indonesia causing smog in Singapore; Chinese pollution reaching Japan; and radiation from Fukushima reaching the shores of the USA. Also credit acid rain (if clearly shown to be transboundary) and credit Chernobyl (1986). [The Gulf of Mexico oil spill was not a TBP event because only the USA was affected. Candidates using this example only may still attain band D according to other criteria, but ought not be awarded band E.]

Transnational waste movement (TWM) includes landfill in China originating in USA; European e-waste arriving in Accra (Ghana); ship-breaking in Bangladesh; Trafigura’s chemical waste from Europe arriving in Ivory Coast. This is a purposeful/intended global interaction/trade transaction. It is acceptable to view discarded household goods (eg clothes for charity) as a form of waste. Waste can also be a very valuable resource when recycled, so TWM can be seen as a positive interaction. Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to distinguish (beyond simply employing comparative language such as “whereas”): eg TBP may involve the dispersal of point source pollution into multiple territories whereas TWM is a movement from one territory to another; TBP has negative impacts/costs money but TWM can also be positive/makes money; TBP is accidental but TWM is deliberate, etc).

For band C, expect some description of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance).

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance) or a good attempt to distinguish between them.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The global periphery may be defined as regions outside/beyond the core. Historically, some states were identified as being peripheral due to their spatial distance/isolation or lack of integration into economic and political systems. In 2015, this idea of peripheral states is only a very basic/antiquated starting point. A contemporary account might acknowledge also the existence of semi-peripheral states (middle-income countries) or the presence of important global hubs/cores such as Lagos in states that some people might still view as being part of a global periphery.

Another approach might be to discuss the extent to which various global flows and interactions (from international aid to social networks) have networked/connected the majority of the world’s states and a large proportion of their peoples. To give a counterargument, examples might be cited of isolated states and regions, from which we can infer the existence of a “global periphery”.

Possible themes include:

• economic globalization of low-income countries through trade, aid, loans [Guide 3] that may originate in EU/USA “core” countries but also emerging economies/BRICs/NICs [Guide 1 and 3]
• cultural interactions between countries in the core and periphery [Guide 5]
• isolated states eg North Korea, China (culturally); non-globalized tribal groups [Guide 6 and 7]
• the “shrinking world” effect that brings connectivity to previously peripheral places [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and global media that help to connect places through the growth of a common “core” culture (possibly modified by glocalization) which more and more places share [Guide 5].

Good answers may discuss differing degrees of “peripheral” states (perhaps including semiperiphery, non-globalized periphery). Another approach might be to discuss the multi-scale existence of core and periphery patterns (recognizing the global importance of world cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America). Another approach might be to discuss what is meant by “global interactions” in the context of this question (referring to a variety of trade flows, aid flows, migration flows, information flows, etc).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how global interactions have contributed to the disappearance/persistence/modification of a “global periphery” of places/people. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Most candidates understood clearly the difference between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement. Relevant examples were used, although the detail and accuracy was variable. Very few used Fukushima as a case study, preferring to use the 30-year-old Chernobyl example instead. This is a pity and clearly goes against the ethos of the course which is stated on page 13 of the geography guide. The best answers understood the significance of the command term “distinguish” and were awarded full marks accordingly.

A handful of excellent answers showed deep understanding of how global interactions have modified the previously binary world system (the “north/south” or “core/periphery” of the immediate post-war period). They wrote about the evolution of a far more complex world, beginning with the rise of the Asian Tigers in the 1950s. Other strong answers dealt with the statement on a flow-by-flow basis and understood that a country like China could be regarded as being part of an economic core but had chosen to remain peripheral to social networks such as Facebook. Weaker answers tended to focus mainly on isolated tribes and the Sahel as non-globalized places. Done well, however, band D was still achievable through the use of this narrow approach.

Using examples, analyse how global financial flows can be affected by the actions of governments.

Discuss why anti-globalization movements/groups are found in most countries.

Financial flows include movements of money/credit/investment. Strictly, they should not include movements of goods/raw materials, although in reality there is some overlap (investments by TNCs underpin to flows of goods) and where appropriate the benefit of the doubt should be given.

National governments may directly transfer money via international aid programmes (bilateral or multilateral contributions), loans (including sovereign wealth funds) and investment (state-owned companies may purchase assets abroad). They indirectly affect financial flows through their policy-making. This can impact on migration (and thus remittances) and the investment patterns of TNCs (and thus flows of FDI, including investment, acquisitions, outsourcing). National governments also protect their economy from financial currency inflows/outflows. Money laundering is another possible theme.

Also credit use of multi-governmental organizations (and the way flows can accelerate with removal of tariffs/market expansion) and the intergovernmental nature of financial institutions/global governance (IMF and World Bank).

For band C, at least two financial flows should be described with some exemplification and a link established with government(s) (do not expect balance).

For band D, either more than two flows should be analysed and exemplified, or two flows analysed in a structured way that conceptualizes different types of influence (direct and indirect) or governments (national, MGOs, IGOs).

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the ubiquity of resistance to globalization. The statement is not intended as a challenge and no counter-argument is required.

Different reasons for resistance need to be identified; the reasons are not the same for all countries. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of one or more actual anti-globalization movements/groups must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons why globalization might be resisted by people in general).

Possible anti-globalization themes (expect examples of actual movements/groups for some but not all) include:

• anti-globalization movements (named groups are expected) [Guide 6,7]
• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5, 7]
• opposition to migration (may have names of political groups/parties) [Guide 6]
• opposition to IMF/SAPs [Guide 3]
• environmental concerns (example of civil society group/movement) [Guide 4]
• cultural imperialism (may refer to indigenous movement/protest) [Guide 5]
• resource nationalism (and populist/nationalist movements) [Guide 6]
• deindustrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• food miles and local sourcing movements (may name organization) [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may discuss globalization as a complex process, the effects of which are felt everywhere, albeit in varying ways, giving rise to movements/groups. Another approach may be to discuss how the veracity of the statement depends on what local effects of globalization are most strongly felt/perceived in a different locale (and perspectives may vary on this, even within the same locale).

For band D, there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically discusses the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, analyse the concept of “loss of sovereignty”.

Examine how economic, technological and political factors may all influence the growth of global diaspora populations.

Loss of sovereignty is principally understood in political and/or economic terms. It encompasses the diminishing effectiveness of political borders and subsequent changes in flow of goods/capital/labour/ideas and perhaps the location of economic activities. These changes may be viewed by governments and/or citizens as the ceding of power/independence in potentially problematic ways.

The concept is most likely explored in relation to the growth of multi-governmental organizations such as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. In the case of the EU, there are additional governance and currency issues to perhaps consider.

However, the concept of sovereignty is even broader than this in some people’s view, and may also be taken to include:

• the shift in power away from states and towards TNCs as a result of their economic size and dominance. This may be linked with the state’s loss of direct control over its own resources (oil, minerals)
• largely inescapable cultural changes such as loss of native languages and customs, beyond state control (and the associated concepts of cultural imperialism and the shrinking world)
• IMF/World Bank or other “top-down” assistance that comes with strings attached eg structural adjustment (SAPs)
• free trade and abandonment of protectionism could lead to changes which increase dependency on other trading partners.

Other interpretations of “loss of sovereignty” may be credited provided some change/loss over time features in the account.

For band C, two impacts of a powerful global/top-down force or change (such as an MGO, TNCs or information flows) should be described that have some bearing on a recognizable state’s independence/autonomy.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of exemplified impacts or a briefer account that conceptualizes what “loss of sovereignty” might involve.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the growth of diasporas – globally dispersed populations of common ancestry/ethnicity/religion. An effective examination should give consideration to all three, economic, technological and political factors.

The factors give rise to migration which in turn generates diaspora growth. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of diaspora populations must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons for migration between different countries).

Possible themes linked to diaspora growth include:

• active role of diaspora source nations in the growth of diasporas [Guide 5]
• shrinking world, including transnational family connectivity using ICT, or cheaper/easier means to disperse eg cheaper air flights [Guide 2]
• many of the political controls on global interactions can discourage migration and thus diaspora growth eg nationalism, anti-immigration rhetoric/policies [Guide 6] or controls on technology eg internet censorship [Guide 2]
• key role of economic labour flows as a global interaction [Guide 3]
• growth of EU has aided growth of “instant” diasporas within Europe due to freedom of movement [Guide 5]
• roots of globalization in empires of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries established patterns of post-colonial migration between global periphery and core [Guide 1] and eg growth of African diasporas in Europe/Americas
• global homogenization of landscapes [Guide 4] and consumer culture [Guide 5] may make different places become more familiar, so becomes less of a wrench to migrate overseas
• poverty might limit out-migration from the poorest countries of the global periphery [Guide 2].

Good answers that score highly at AO3 may additionally examine how the three different factors are interrelated (particularly within the context of the free movement of people within the EU), or may examine how the factors can both encourage or discourage migration. Another approach might be to examine explicitly the relative importance of the three factors in different contexts.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of all three factors with supporting details (do not expect balance), or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically examines the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Explain how agro-industrialization contributes to environmental degradation.

“Cultural diffusion is a process that takes place in many ways but can be halted by many barriers.” Discuss this statement.

The term agro-industrialization describes commercial, large-scale agricultural operations (typically conducted by/on behalf of TNCs such as Cargill, Monsanto, Nestle, McDonald’s etc.).

Degradation may be mapped at local or global scales, and themes may include: carbon emissions/food miles, biodiversity losses, water extraction/water scarcity/water footprint issues, soil erosion/nutrient depletion, eutrophication, sedimentation, forest/mangrove losses, “virtual water” losses. There are many other possible themes.

To access band C, a range of ideas should be explained (expect at least two in some depth, or the briefer outlining of a wider range). For band E, expect some named locations to be mentioned, or different types/sectors of agro-industry to be identified, or good links to be established with the actions of named agro-industrial TNCs.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Pathways for cultural diffusion include the movements of workers and tourists who carry cultural traits with them [Guide 5]. A wide variety of traits could be explored, such as language, religion, arts and music, cuisine, fashion etc. The movement of commodities and the diffusion of the internet and films, orchestrated by technology, TNCs and global media corporations respectively, are other key ways in which “messages” are transmitted [Guide 2]. Military and imperial ventures could also be discussed. A “Trojan horse” strategy of contemporary glocalization [Guide 7] could be explored – wherein western cultural icons (for example, denim, burgers etc.) gain access to foreign markets by donning “cultural camouflage”). MGO membership – notably the EU – also aids cultural transfers by easing restrictions on a variety of flows and pathways for cultural diffusion (such as greater freedom of movement for people or goods) [Guide 6].

The barriers may be physical, political, economic or cultural and they can include nationalism and anti-globalization movements and sentiments [Guide 6 and 7]. A range of local responses could be explored that challenge cultural imperialism [Guide 5] or at least negotiate glocalized outcomes in ways that restrict the pace of cultural change (censorship of Google in China is one example).

To access bands D and E, the answer should be well balanced between coverage of the processes themselves and of possible barriers to their operation. The best answers may look beyond a “black and white” world (where processes of exchange either do or do not operate) and might critically explore ways in which global cultural exchanges are negotiated locally, resulting in partial or selective transfers of culture that bring into being new hybridized cultural forms (language, art, music or cuisine often show a “fusion” of different influences).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Many candidates reached bands C and D of the markscheme by providing a range of valid examples of degradation linked to some degree with "large-scale" agriculture. Often, the explanations (for example, of eutrophication) were in-depth. However, a precise understanding of – or exemplification of – actual agro-industrialization was at times lacking. Thus, a very good answer might note that "cattle ranchers producing meat for McDonald's have to carry out their activities on an enormous scale to meet rising global demand. This is resulting in mass removal of forest both for ranching and for growing cattle food, for example, soya in Brazil". (Incidentally, blanket statements were sometimes made which were not necessarily accurate – for example, deforestation in Brazil is now less due to cattle ranching and more likely linked to Brazilian agriculture's turn towards soya production.)

Candidates are, by and large, beginning to show good familiarity with cultural geography themes and concepts. Even weaker candidates could name-drop cultural imperialism and glocalization as important ideas to be reckoned with. Strong answers properly discussed the statement. For example, some good candidates queried whether glocalization should be seen primarily as evidence that globalization gets "halted" by cultural barriers (that require TNCs to make changes to their products); or whether the practice of glocalization offers proof that TNCs will always find ways to overcome cultural/religious/economic/political barriers. Good answers to this question often showed very good understanding of the synthetic aspect of the question and were able to weave their way around the guide fairly expertly.

Using examples, explain how financial flows transfer wealth between places.

“Glocalization is the most important reason why some transnational corporations (TNCs) have grown in size and influence over time.” Discuss this statement.

Financial flows (based on geography subject guide) include loans, debt relief/repayment, international aid, FDI, profit leakage and remittances (do not credit “goods”). The spatial focus could be the global core and periphery (although these terms are dynamic and contested and a variety of interpretations are acceptable, so long as named examples are also included). Some answers may additionally explain that there are legal and illegal (criminal, informal) mechanisms of money transfer; or can explain how “transfer pricing” and offshore tax havens are used by TNCs to transfer money between places.

Better answers may provide superior evidence/case study details of the wealth flows (quoting dollar values or percentage contributions to GDP, etc). They may also consider the varied directions of the flows (whether towards core/MEDCs or towards periphery/LDCs). They may even consider flows at the local scale too (eg may consider how international aid or FDI flows transfer wealth towards an LDC, yet do not necessarily reach the poorest people/parts of that state).

For band C, at least two financial flows must be described with some exemplification of one flow (either of places or the size/scale of the flows).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the major financial flows (may look at how a wider range operate; may provide much more detailed evidence for a smaller range)
• or some explanation of how some major financial flows can operate in different directions (may even consider different scales).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Responses would be expected to define glocalization, providing examples of its effectiveness as a strategy for bridging/building new markets [Guide 5].

A fully synthetic and evaluative answer should debate the statement with reference to other, possibly more important, factors. These could include growth in technology associated with globalization, for example, containers or ICT [Guide 2] or the growth of MGOs allowing easier access to markets, possibly triggering mergers and acquisitions (for example, Cemex and domestic cement companies within NAFTA trade bloc) [Guide 6]. The economic factors that triggered global shift (such as cheap labour) are important and the role of outsourcing could be discussed [Guide 3]. Other strategies employed by global brands may also be addressed that explain diffusion over time and space, such as the promotion of consumerism through brand advertising [Guide 5].

Some candidates may conceptualize TNCs as a broad category that includes energy companies and agribusinesses, which would not be expected to adopt glocalization to the same extent as branded commodity providers and the service industry (global banking).

For band C, at least one glocalization strategy must be described and its effectiveness commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either other more detailed reasons for TNC growth (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, using at least one other theme synthesized from the subject guide, probably the role of technology/transport)
• or some more explicit discussion of how glocalization helps some TNCs (perhaps not all) to develop their size and influence (eg cultural acceptance is gained in varied geographical contexts/new markets) over time.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of one named globalization index.

“Individuals, national governments and international organizations are increasingly resistant to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Expect either the KOF or Kearney index to be selected. There are other possibilities, for example, Maastricht globalization index; CSGR (Warwick); Ernst & Young.

Strengths include the multi-strand approach taken, recognizing that globalization comprises a range of processes that need to be measured, for example, KOF distinguishes between political, social and economic measures of globalization while Kearney uses four categories (economic, personal, technological or political integration).

Weaknesses can be conceptual (what is not included) or empirical (difficulties in collecting data and accuracy issues), for example, KOF’s measures of social globalization are easily critiqued, such as the “proximity” of data.

For band C, one recognizable index of globalization should be described in a way that implies it has merit (has different strands) and may state one or two basic weaknesses.

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the chosen multi-strand index (with some attempt made to describe some weakness)
• or greater understanding of the weaknesses of economic and social data collection/comparisons in general (eg appreciates different perspectives on what is viewed as important; knows about flaws in survey methodology).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions should be defined as a broad set of economic and sociocultural exchanges.

At the individual scale, a range of civil society initiatives can be discussed, such as Occupy/anti-globalization and, at the other end of the political spectrum, anti-immigration/nationalists [Guide 7]. However, some individuals continue to embrace the shrinking world [Guide 2] for a range of economic/cultural reasons [Guide 5].

Evidence of resistance at the national level might include individual government attitudes towards the arrival of global media corporations [Guide 5] or towards immigration and diaspora growth [Guide 5] or towards MGO membership [Guide 6]. However, governments also recognize the advantages of globalization, free trade and financial flows [Guide 5].

The concept of “international organizations” embraces MGOs [Guide 6] and international aid and development agencies responsible for financial flows, such as the politically-guided work of the IMF [Guide 2]. It is likely that candidates will choose to argue against the statement at this final scale.

Because the question specifies three scales of resistance, there are several routes to discussing the statement. One might be to offer some counterarguments (eg shows that some national governments embrace global interactions). Another might be to discuss the extent to which resistance is exhibited by individuals compared with governments and international organizations. Another might be to consider whether different kinds of interaction meet with varying strength or resistance (eg China embracing trade but resists information exchange). Each approach must be assessed on its own merits. However, a response that merely agrees with the statement cannot progress beyond the band C/D border.

For band C, resistance to global interactions must be identified at all three scales, with description provided of at least two.

To access band D, expect:

• either broader knowledge of a range of reactions, at some different scales (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, eg by comparing negative reactions at different scales; or by comparing positive and negative reactions at some of the specified scales ie individuals, governments and organizations)
• or some explicit discussion of the way that different types of global interaction may prompt different kinds of reaction at one/some of the specified scales.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Explain how rising global demand for one raw material has led to environmental degradation.

“The barriers to global interactions are increasing, not decreasing.” Discuss this statement.

Raw materials may include fossil fuels, ores, timber or food stuffs such as soya. Any unexpected interpretations, the validity of which is not clear, must be referred to a team leader.

• Located impacts for degradation could include the Niger delta or Gulf of Mexico (oil), Brazil (timber/soya), shale gas (USA), oil sands (Canada).
• Specific impacts might include loss of biodiversity or acid rain. A good account of impacts that lacks locational detail can still reach the higher band if the process details are good.
• The idea of degradation might also be linked to the lifecycle of the raw material/product including waste disposal issues.
• Good answers may be structured to show different scales of environmental degradation (local and global) or may look at transmission of effects (questioning whether degradation occurs at the source or destination/market eg coal burning).

Details of rising demand are required for band E, or can help candidates to access band D if they are lacking details about environmental degradation. Rising demand could be linked specifically with the growth of emerging economies/rising affluence/growth of new consumer classes. Some credit can be given for suggesting population increases, although rising demand is in fact related far more to changing lifestyles in China, Brazil, Indonesia, etc.

At band D, expect either a detailed description of some range of environmental degradation, or a clear explanation of how/why rising demand plays a role.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions may be defined as a diverse set of flows (economic, social, cultural, etc), potentially “setting the scene” for an essay which provides a nuanced conclusion that discusses the extent to which the statement is true for different types of global interaction.

Likely themes and barriers include:

• free trade versus protectionism (and the role trade blocs play); the focus will be loss of sovereignty and multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) [Guide 6]
• information exchange versus censorship, linked to growing importance of technology/“shrinking world” theory [Guide 2]
• “open-door” migration versus points systems and restrictions either in the context of economic migration or diaspora studies [Guide 3, Guide 5]
• some possible considerations of the now well-documented and growing risks associated with outsourcing/offshoring [Guide 3] – perhaps an “end of globalization” argument
• physical/environmental barriers may not be growing but are certainly falling due to overcoming of friction of distance [Guide 2]
• developed further, the migration and offshoring debates can be linked with the resurgence of nationalism and anti-globalization movements [Guide 6, Guide 7].

The double-edged effect of MGOs may be remarked on – namely, that they reduce barriers to internal exchanges while erecting barriers to external trade (eg through the adoption of a common external tariff in the case of the EU, thereby excluding some producers from access to European markets).

Good answers may conclude that the response to the question depends on the type of interaction that is being discussed (thus China is more open to flows of FDI than in the past, pre-1978; yet efforts to censor the internet have increased in line with its growing popularity). Some countries encourage economic interactions but attempt to curtail cultural ones.

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a variety of ways in which barriers are changing, or a more critical discussion of different kinds of barriers and interactions.

At band E, expect both.

Many mediocre responses were seen. Some very generalized impacts were described, with many candidates offering little beyond “pollution” or “global warming”. Also, the phrase “rising global demand” was glossed over in most cases, with candidates simply asserting that more oil or timber (the most popular choices) is needed today than in the past. Few could link the rising demand with important global development such as the rise of consumption in emerging economies. Higher level diploma geography candidates really ought to be in possession of supporting data in relation to the changing global pattern of wealth. One good starting point for updating content, already mentioned in a previous subject report for this paper, is this recent McKinsey report:

http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class 

A pleasing number of candidates who chose this question were able to offer a proper evaluation that gave nuanced consideration to what is meant by a “barrier” (poverty, languages, and political obstacles were all possibilities). Many grasped the paradox that trade blocs simultaneously increase and decrease barriers (according to who is a member of the bloc, and who is not).

Analyse how the growth of multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) can impact on the political borders of member states.

Contrast the impact of global interactions on the quality of life of different groups of people.

Analyse how the growth of multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) can impact on the political borders of member states.

Political borders are potential barriers to flows of goods, capital or people. Likely examples of multi-governmental organizations include the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. Also credit discussion of WTO, IMF, UN, BRICS summit groups, OECD, G7/8/20, OPEC etc.

Other possible analytical themes include:
• Not all MGOs impact on the effectiveness of member states’ borders to the same extent. Only the EU allows full freedom of movement.
• Trade blocs like NAFTA allow movement of commodities across borders without the imposition of tariffs.
• Illegal migration / smuggling may render borders ineffective.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to analyse how the word “can” is conditional and suggests other geographical influences should be considered too, such as the effectiveness of border controls (eg US–Mexico). Another approach might be to analyse how political borders remain in place for states at the supra-national scale. MGO formation might even strengthen external borders eg external tariff / customs union / border policing of migration from external states outside the MGO.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of the impact of one or two MGOs on national borders.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
• either two or more detailed MGO contexts
• or some variety of impacts on political borders (perhaps at varying scales).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Contrast the impact of global interactions on the quality of life of different groups of people.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus here is on quality of life, which is a highly debatable concept in itself (expect some definition to be provided in a good answer). The merit of the answer is likely to depend on the variety of global interactions that are conceptualized and/or the contrasts that are offered.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
• isolated tribes and their quality of life [Guide 7]
• issues of multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• deindustrialization, labour flows and outsourcing and their impacts on employment in a range of different contexts [Guide 2 and 3]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs (cultural imperialism) and the reaction to this [Guide 5 and 7]
• environmental concerns and the health concerns associated with waste dumping, transboundary pollution and some work eg e-waste harvesting [Guide 4].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which contrasts a wider range of groups (isolated tribes; people in deindustrialized regions; societies benefiting from inward investment or outsourcing; global citizens; conflict victims). Good answers might take a more nuanced view than simply listing “winners and losers”. For example, one group might gain employment from global shift while also experiencing a negative change such as cultural dilution; this could make it hard to judge the net impact on their quality of life. Good answers might conclude that contrasts should be drawn carefully because “quality of life” and “global interactions” are complex ideas.

Answers which deal mainly with “benefits” for people, rather than addressing quality of life explicitly, may still reach band D if sufficient relevant themes are synthesized.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the Guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect
• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

This was the least popular question; candidates attempting it generally produced merit-worthy answers that dealt competently with the effect that the EU and NAFTA have had on the borders of member states (these were the most popular examples by a considerable margin). Done well, an analysis of borders/barriers to the movement of people and trade was sufficient to access the top bands provided good supporting details were provided of one or two organizations.  A large proportion of answers, however, were side-tracked into an analysis of the costs and benefits of MGO membership. Some barely mentioned the word ‘borders’ and wrote instead at some length about sovereignty and political self determination. Wherever possible, credit was awarded of course. However, some clearly knowledgeable candidates did not access the highest bands on account of their lack of focus. 

Candidates often failed to use the phrase ‘quality of life’ and instead wrote far more broadly about ‘winners and losers’ of globalization, or ‘positive and negative consequences’ of global interactions. Some material was creditable on account of the way in which quality of life was implied; for instance, the statement ‘remittances sent home may help children in the source country to attend school or gain access to improved health care’ (this implies improved quality of life for the children). Other material was less obviously creditable. For instance, the statement ‘globalization has helped China develop into the world’s largest economy but some African countries have done less well’ (in this example, it is less obvious what is being said about quality of life). A few answers focused exclusively on the lives of ‘non-globalized’ groups such as the Xingu tribe and Amish of North America. This approach did not work terribly well as candidates could offer little in the way of evaluation beyond the observation that these groups are unaffected so their quality of life remains unchanged. In contrast, the best answers often mentioned indigenous tribes but additionally evaluated the changing quality of life for a wide range of different groups, including consumer societies, producer societies, social network users and societies disproportionately affected by global environmental change.

Explain the causes and effects of one major international labour flow.

“The growth of globalization owes more to politics than it does to technology.” Discuss this statement.

The causes should encompass both push and pull factors and possibly also the enabling role of technology and transport networks (both providing means to move as well as spreading knowledge of opportunities), without which the migratory impulse may not be acted upon. Popular examples could include movement from Mexico to the US or movements internal to the EU, South Asians working in the Middle East, or Filipinos into Asia. Assess any example on its own merits but poorly chosen small-scale migration flows should be restricted to band C.

The effects depend upon the case study chosen. These might include economic/social impacts for host/source or the political reaction of natives/the media in the host country. More broadly, processes of cultural exchange and the growth of diaspora may be explored, possibly within the wider global context of migration contributing to growth of a “global village”/shrinking world. But do not expect all of these themes by any means to be necessary for full marks to be awarded: just two causes and two different types of effect could be sufficient to access the highest bands if the case study details are good.

To access Band E, both causes and effects should be addressed in a reasonably balanced way.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Politics:

Important themes could include the influence of governments on capital transfers by financial institutions [Guide 3] and TNCs (liberal attitudes could be contrasted with countries where greater restrictions exist, for example, the controversial role of Chavez in Venezuela; or the isolationism of North Korea). Another theme could be IMF insistence on political reforms [Guide 3]. Weak environment and labour laws/enforcement of these laws may be attractive: this is likely to be a popular theme, possible examples being China (though now changing) or Malaysia. The movement towards nation-state integration in the EU – and to a lesser extent in other trading blocs [Guide 6] – allows rapid growth on a regionalized level due to suspension of tariffs and quotas on imports/exports between trading partners. Political reactions to globalization [Guide 7] vary enormously and cultural traditions of liberalism or socialism could become enshrined in immigration laws or other policies.

Technology:

The growth of transport and ICT networks have fuelled the growth of a range of flows – including FDI, migration [Guide 5], outsourcing by TNCs, growth of call centres, social/cultural “shrinking world”, economic exchanges brought by the internet or BlackBerry etc. [Guide 2]. Containerized shipping and no-frills flights can be linked to exponential growth of various flows such as manufactured goods and international tourism [Guide 5]. The “Arab Spring” can be viewed as a youth-led phenomenon that was, in part, facilitated by technology and media.

The very best answers may attempt to link the two factors and add complexity to their comparison. For instance, it could be possible to show how technology has actually been driven by politics (for example, the Cold War roots of the internet), or to address how technology allows global political participation (for example, use of Facebook to orchestrate protests at G20 summits etc.).

To access band E, the response should be well balanced and a conclusion should be reached that is more complex than “they are both important” (perhaps through an evidenced account that supports one factor rather than the other, or perhaps by stressing that the two factors are actually interrelated).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Most candidates could describe some effects of a major labour flow, or migration, usually with a basic framework applied (such as compared impacts for the source and host region). Remittances were widely written about, which was appropriate given their centrality to financial global interactions in a paper 3 context. A hallmark of better answers tended to be the adoption of an evaluative approach as part of the explanation: rather than simply listing the "good and bad impacts", strong candidates volunteered to weigh up the positives and negatives of individual effects, such as the transfer of remittances (wherein GDP growth is seen as the positive and dependency as the negative). The causes of the labour flow were sometimes very thin in weaker responses; in contrast, the best answers sometimes offered a political framework as a causal factor for movement (freedom of movement in the EU or governance of Mexico-USA movement, for example).

Weaker answers were usually highly descriptive, with candidates doing no more than asserting by way of a conclusion that Facebook (shrinking world, technology) is a "bigger influence" than EU membership (politics). The strongest responses presented a proper evaluation and perhaps concluded by recognizing that there are political limits to our so-called shrinking world, or that political processes shape the local geographical context within which technology is rolled out.